Background Kulturkampf

pope pius ix (ca. 1878)

the catholic church resisted development portrayed attack on religion , sought maintain , strengthen strong role in state , society. growing influence of enlightenment , after having lost of wealth, power , influence in mediatisation , secularization of 19th century church had been in state of decline. papacy @ time @ weak point in history, having lost territories italy, pope prisoner in vatican. church strove revert waning influence , keep sway in such matters e. g. marriage, family , education , initiated catholic revival founding associations, papers, schools, social establishments or new orders , encouraging religious practices such pilgrimages, mass assemblies, devotion of virgin mary or sacred heart of jesus , veneration of relics; pope himself became object of devotion. apart extraordinary proliferation of religious orders, 19th. century witnessed rise of countless catholic associations , organisations, in germany , in france. catholic propaganda including interpretation of daily events spread through local , national catholic newspapers prominent in western european nations through organized missions , groups dedicated pious literature.

in 19th. century, catholic church promulgated series of contentious dogmas , encyclicals: in

1832, in encyclical mirari vos, pope gregory xvi condemned liberalism, free press , free thought.

under leadership of successor, pope pius ix, in

1854, church proclaimed mary’s immaculate conception. in
1864, vatican published encyclical quanta cura , syllabus of errors; in
1870, first vatican council declared dogma of papal infallibility.

with syllabus of errors of 1864, catholic church launched assault on new ideologies condemning 80 philosophical , political statements, foundations of modern nation state, false. outright rejected such concepts freedom of religion, free thought, separation of church , state, civil marriage, sovereignty of people, democracy, liberalism , socialism, reason sole base of human action , in general condemned idea of conciliation progress. announcements included index of forbidden books.

a profound change gradual reorganization of catholic church , expansive use of media. popes worked increase control of church. heavily criticized european governments, centralized , streamlined strict hierarchy, bishops sought direction vatican , needs , views of international church given priority on local ones. opponents of new hierarchical church organization pejoratively called ultramontanism.

in view of church’s opposition enlightenment, liberal reforms , revolutions of 18th/19th centuries, these dogmas , church’s expressed insistence on papal primacy angered liberal-minded across europe, among catholics, adding fuel heated debates.

the dogmas represented threat secularized state reaffirmend fundamental allegiance of catholics not nation-state, gospel , church , pope’s teaching absolutely authoritative , binding on faithful. secular politicians wondered whether catholicism , allegiance modern liberal state not mutually exclusive . british prime minister gladstone wrote in 1874 teaching on papal infallibility compromised allegiance of faithful english catholics. european liberalism, dogmas declaration of war against modern state, science , spiritual freedom.

the pope’s handling of dissent of dogmas, e. g. excommunication of critics or demanding removal schools , universities, considered epitome of papal authoritarianism . in direct response vatican’s announcements, austria passed so-called may-laws cisleithania in 1868, restricting concordat of 1855, , cancelled concordat altogether in 1870.

saxony , bavaria withheld approval publish papal infallibility; hesse , baden denied legal validity. france refused publish doctrines altogether; spain forbade publication of syllabus of errors in 1864.