Kulturkampf in Germany Kulturkampf

1 kulturkampf in germany

1.1 background
1.2 timeline , laws enacted during kulturkampf

1.2.1 1871
1.2.2 1872
1.2.3 1873
1.2.4 1874
1.2.5 1875
1.2.6 1876


1.3 mitigation , peace laws
1.4 effects of laws, contemporary criticism , long term results
1.5 anti-polish aspect of kulturkampf

kulturkampf in germany
background

anti-catholic caricature in munich leuchtkugeln, 1848. warning not rejoice yet. catholic cleric fox , blind passenger on wagon of progress, in order later reverse course of history.

by mid-nineteenth century, liberal policies had come dominate germany , separation of church , state became prominent issue.

the kulturkampf in germany framed years 1871 , 1878 catholic church officially announcing end in 1880 struggle in germany had been ongoing matter without definite beginning , years 1871 1878 mark culmination in prussia , germany. in wake of other european countries, german states had taken first steps of secularisation before unification. predominantly catholic baden @ forefront curbing power of catholic church (1852 – 1854 baden church dispute) , (1864 – 1876 kulturkampf baden, see de:badischer kulturkampf). other examples prussia (1830s, 1850, 1859 , 1969), württemberg (1859/1862), bavaria (1867, see de:bayerischer kulturkampf), hesse-nassau or hesse-darmstadt.

in 1837 kölner wirren (cologne confusion; article in german) of legal , policy issues regarding children of mixed protestant-catholic marriages, prussia s final settlement considered defeat state had given in demands of catholic church. in 1850, prussia again had dispute church civil marriage , primary schools , in 1852, issued decrees against jesuits. in many european countries, jesuits being banned or heavily restricted in many of german states e. g. in saxony (1831) , in catholic ones such bavaria (1851), baden (1860) or württemberg (1862).

not left out, german areas west of rhine had gone through process of separation of church , state in line radical secularization after annexation revolutionary , napoleonic france in 1794. after return germany in 1814, many if not of changes kept in place.

in vormärz-years, catholic publications portrayed revolutions negative , dangerous existing order interests of catholic church. of them considered viable catholicism necessary health of society , state , true , effective protection against scourge of revolution. unsuccessful german revolutions of 1848–49, catholic church had opposed, produced no democratic reforms , attempts radically disentangle state-church relationships failed. in revolutionary parliament, many prominent representatives of political catholicism took side of extreme right-wingers. in years following revolution, catholicism became increasingly politicised due massive anti-modernist , anti-liberal policies of vatican.

in austro-prussian war of 1866 , franco-prussian war of 1870 catholic church sided against prussia , outspoken opponent of german unification under prussia (as of italy’s unification).

the catholic dogmas , doctrines announced in 1854, 1864 , 1870 perceived in germany direct attacks on modern nation state. thus, bismarck, liberals , conservatives representing orthodox protestants found centre party’s support of pope highly provocative. many catholics shared these sentiments, against pope’s declared infallibility , majority of catholic german bishops deemed definition of dogma unpropitious in light of situation in germany . according bavarian head of government, hohenlohe, dogma of infallibility compromised catholic s loyalty state. while catholics reconciled doctrine, founded small breakaway old catholic church.

the liberal majorities in imperial diet , prussian parliament liberals in general regarded church backward, hotbed reactionaries, enemies of progress , cast monastic life epitome of backward catholic medievalism. alarmed dramatic rise in numbers of monasteries, convents , clerical religious groups in era of widespread religious revival. diocese of cologne, example, saw tenfold increase of monks , nuns between 1850 , 1872. prussian authorities particularly suspicious of spread of monastic life among polish , french minorities. church, in turn, saw national-liberals worst enemy, accusing them of spearheading war against christianity , catholic church.

at unification in 1871, new german empire included 25.5 million protestants (62% of population) , 15 million catholics (36.5% of population). although minority in empire, catholics majority in states of bavaria, baden, , alsace-lorraine in 4 prussian provinces of west prussia, posen, rhineland, westphalia , in prussian region of upper silesia. since thirty years war population segregated along religious lines , rural areas or towns overwhelmingly if not entirely of same religion. education separate , in hands of churches. there little mutual tolerance, interaction or intermarriage. protestants in general distrustful of catholic church.

bismarck c. 1875

unification had been achieved through many obstacles strong opponents. these european powers of france , austria, both catholic nations, , catholic church itself, 3 of bismarck perceived coalition of catholic revenge . bismarck, empire fragile , consolidation important issue. biographer otto pflanze emphasizes, bismarck s belief in existence of widespread catholic conspiracy posed threat both german , european policies.

in protestant empire, catholic church lose standing had enjoyed centuries in catholic-dominated holy roman empire , have continued enjoy in german empire united under austrian auspices. thus, in 1870, on eve of unification, center party explicitly founded defend position of church in new empire.

bismarck highly concerned many major members , supporters of new party not in sympathy new empire: house of hanover, ethnic minority of poles, southern german states. in 1871, predominantly catholic states of southern germany had reluctantly joined empire, increasing overall share of catholic population 36.5%. among catholic share germany’s largest ethnic minority, on 2 million poles in east of prussia, under prussia , germany suffered discrimination , oppression.. bismarck regarded new centre party not illegal mixup of politics , religion , church’s long arm unifying force catholic germans , poles , threat consolidation of empire. feared centre party frustrate broader political agendas , accused catholic priests of fostering polish nationalism had been done openly in provinces of posen , upper silesia.

prussian minister of education, adalbert falk, 1872

the liberals regarded catholic church powerful force of reaction , anti-modernity, after proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870 , tightening control of vatican on local bishops. renewed vitality of catholicism in germany mass gatherings attracted protestants - heir prussian throne, king s approval, attended one. antiliberalism, anticlericalism , anti-catholicism became powerful intellectual forces of time , antagonism between liberals , protestants on 1 side , catholic church on other fought out through mud-slinging in press. wave of anti-catholic, anticlerical , antimonastic pamphleteering in liberal press answered antiliberal preaching , propaganda in catholic newspapers , vice versa.

for these reasons, government sought wean catholic masses away hierarchy , centre party , liberal’s demands curb power of churches meshed bismarck’s main political objective crush centre party. according historian anthony j. steinhoff, bismarck’s plan disarm political catholicism delighted liberal politicians, provided parliamentary backing crusade. yet, phrase left-liberal rudolf virchow coined struggle, kulturkampf, suggests liberals wanted more prevent catholicism becoming political force. wanted victory on catholicism itself, long-delayed conclusion of reformation .

at least since 1847 , in line liberals, bismarck had been of professed opinion, state , church should separated , sphere of state had made secure against incursions church , although ideas not far reaching in united states or in great britain. had in mind traditional position of protestant church in prussia , provoked considerable resistance conservative protestants. became clear in heated debate prussian culture minister von mühler in 1871 when bismarck said: since stopped plans in protestant church, have go via rome . in august 1871 @ bad ems, bismarck revealed intention fight against centre party, separate state , church, transfer school inspection laymen, abolish religious instruction schools , transfer religious affairs minister of justice.

on 22 january 1872, liberal adalbert falk replaced conservative heinrich von mühler prussian minister religion, education , health. in bismarck s mind, falk re-establish rights of state in relation church . yet, unlike bismarck, main motivation kulturkampf political power struggle centre party, falk, lawyer, strong proponent of state authority having in mind legal aspects of state-church relationships. falk became driving force behind kulturkampf laws. although bismarck publicly supported falk, doubted success of laws , unhappy lack of political tact , sensitivity. differences in attitudes concerning kulturkampf put 2 politicians @ odds each other.

with background , determination of church , state, kulturkampf in germany acquired additional edge gathered in intensitiy , bitterness.

timeline , laws enacted during kulturkampf

between berlin , rome , bismarck on left , pope on right, german satirical magazine kladderadatsch, 1875. pope: admittedly, last move unpleasant me; game still isn t lost. still have beautiful secret move. bismarck: last one, , ll mated in few moves — @ least in germany.

from 1871 1876, prussian state parliament , federal legislature (reichstag), both liberal majorities, enacted 22 laws in context of kulturkampf. directed against clerics: bishops, priests , religious orders (anti-clerical) , enforced supremacy of state on church. while several laws specific catholic church (jesuits, congregations etc.) general laws affected both catholic , protestant churches. in attempt overcome increasing resistance catholic church , defiance of laws, new regulations increasingly went beyond state matters referring purely internal affairs of church. many liberals saw them encroachment on civil liberties, compromising own credo.

constitutionally, education , regulation of religious affairs vested in federal states , leading actor of kulturkampf prussia, germany’s largest state. of laws passed reichstag , applied of germany. in general, laws did not affect press , associations including catholic ones.

the major kulturkampf laws were:

1871

8 june 1871, fusion of catholic , protestant sections in prussian ministry of culture (responsible religious matters). catholic section had been installed in 1840. reason given merger was, exclusively political attitude of equal justice adopted , purpose 1 ecclesiastical department required. merger precondition school supervision act of following year.
10 december 1871, empire, pulpit law (kanzelparagraph) passed @ initiative of bavaria , meant curb considered misuse of religious sermons political agitation pulpit. law read: cleric or other minister of religion shall punished imprisonment or incarceration of 2 years if he, while exercising occupation or having occupation exercised, makes state affairs subject of announcements or discussion either in public before crowd, in church, or before number of people in other place designated religious gatherings in such way endangers public peace.

1872

22 january 1872, adalbert falk became prussian minister spiritual, educational , health matters
11 march 1872, prussian school supervision act. legislation @ heart of kulturkampf, abolishing church oversight of prussian primary school system (catholic , protestant), excluding clergy education , eliminating influence in curricular matters. milestone liberalism, placing education hands of government had been @ top of agenda. ensure open-minded , neutral education prerequisite progressive society. in eyes of bismarck, law necessary after church, putting in opposition state, used schools incite young against government.
on april 1872, vatican rejected gustav adolf, cardinal prince of hohenlohe-schillingsfürst german ambassador holy see. schillingsfürst had been critical of infallibility dogma accepted decision of council. therefore, bismarck took him suitable mediator. in response rejection diplomatic mission left vacant , prussia suspended relations vatican in december 1872.
4 july 1872, empire, jesuit law banning of jesuits seen emissaries of rome , spearhead of ultramontanism. acknowledging supremacy of papal authority, jesuits accused of contesting secular authority. law allowed dissolution of jesuit chapters , expulsion of members. following year law extended closely related orders: redemptorists, lazarists, fathers of holy ghost, , ladies of sacred heart. continued , increasing church resistance , contempt of 1871/1872 laws led changes in constitution , enactment of further laws. in order facilitate these laws, prussian constitution amended.
20 september 1872, @ conference in fulda prussian bishops protested against regulations hostile church.
23 december 1872, in address cardinals, pope denounced new laws persecution of church.

1873

rudolf virchow, 1861



17 january 1873, term kulturkampf came play. debating law on education conditions employment of clerics, progressive deputy in prussian legislature – distinguished medical scientist , pioneer of public health methods, rudolf virchow said: ich habe die Überzeugung, es handelt sich hier um einen großen kulturkampf. (i of conviction great cultural struggle) repeated term in call vote german progress party on 23 march 1873. ironically picked , derided in catholic press , enthusiastically defended in liberal.
30 january 1873, while laws being debated in parliament, prussian bishops submit protest against planned legislation , in memorial, announced opposition new laws.
5 april 1873, prussia, amendment of sections 15, 16 , 18 of prussian constitution


in section 15 sentence protestant , roman catholic church every other religious community regulates , administers affairs independently supplemented remain subject laws of state , legally regulated superintendence . added, same applies possession or beneficial use of institutions religion, teaching, charity, endowments , funds.
section 16, regarding unrestricted dealings of religious communities seniors , public announcements according general regulations cancelled.
section 18 cancelled state s right appoint, nominate, elect or confirm clerics post. amendment added, state regulate minimum education required clerical posts, appointment , dismissal of clergymen , servicemen of religion, , define limits of ecclesiastical disciplinary measures.


on 2 may 1873, bishops issued common pastoral letter explaining faithful necessity unanimously , passively resist these laws.


ludwig windthorst, 1872



may laws


the may laws (maigesetze), or falk laws, set of laws passed prussian parliament in years 1873, 1874 , 1875.


four laws passed in 1873 enacted on 11/12/13/14 may 1873:


1. law on religious disaffiliation allowing person sever connection church simple declaration before justice of peace. declaration freed him civil effects of belonging church, ecclesiastical burthens , dues.


2. law on ecclesiastical disciplinary measures restricting exercise of ecclesiastical punishments , means of discipline directed against life, property, freedom or honour of citizens. included infliction of great excommunication if proclaimed name of guilty, because of possible disturbances of civil , social intercourse. thus, disciplinary measures totally restricted spiritual realm (see state monopoly on violence).


3. ecclesiastical disciplinary law concerning ecclesiastical power of discipline , establishment of royal court of justice ecclesiastical affairs. subordinated catholic church state jurisdiction not in external in internal matters. law regulated exercise of disciplinary power church authorities against officers special violation of duties. members of court had germans residing in germany. bodily chastisement church entirely forbidden, fines limited maximum amounts, restrictions of freedom consist in banishment church institution within germany no longer 3 months , not against of person concerned. on other hand, new court given jurisdiction on ecclesiastical officers in violation of state laws.
with law german clergy exempt juridical body outside of nation. hence, judgments of holy see or roman rota not binding upon them. highest court made of prussian ecclesiastics, appointed permission of prussian civil authorities. church s juridical , punitive powers restricted allowing clerics, e. g. punished church not resisting kulturkampf laws, appeal royal court of justice ecclesiastical affairs. bishops in defiance of law deposed.


4. education standards , civic registry law concerning education , appointment of priests. regarding protestant church, these regulations had been in force long time. men intended priesthood needed graduate degree (abitur) german gynasium , study 3 years of theology @ german university.
all appointments of clerics had approved state. herewith, training , appointment of clergy came under state supervision. traditional regimen of clerical study replaced modern education in liberal german institution, ensuring candidates priesthood imbued spirit of secularism. furthermore, ecclesiastical offices filled permission of highest civil authority in each province, reviving ancient practice of lay investiture.


26 may 1873, bishops issued pastoral letter calling on faithful resist new laws , informed prussian government not cooperate in execution. parish councils declined elect new pastors or accept parish administrators. exiled or imprisoned bishops used underground networks. bishops of münster , paderborn refused kulturexamen seminaries , appointed priests without notifying authorities. clergy obeying mandate of bishops became subject punishments prescribed laws. fines imposed in hundreds of cases , clerics resisted pay @ which, in turn, government resorted force, either confiscation or imprisonment of 2 years.
21 november 1873, in encyclical etsi multa on persecution of church in italy, germany, , switzerland, pope wrote of germany no wonder, then, former religious tranquility has been gravely disturbed in empire kind of law , other plans , actions of prussian government hostile church. wish falsely cast blame of disturbance on catholics of german empire! claimed freemasonry motivating force behind kulturkampf.

1874

9 march 1874: prussian civil registry law (birth, marriage, death). same law passed whole empire on 6 february 1875.
4 may 1874: empire, expatriation law: meant curb exercise of church duties clerics without required consent of authorities. law stipulated, in such cases, after final conviction, cleric banned parish or sent place within empire and, in case of reoccurrence, cleric expatriated , expelled.
20 may 1874: prussian law on administration of vacant bishoprics. according law of 11 may 1873, administrators elected vacant bishoprics, authorizing laymen assume administrative responsibilities @ parish level. additional law stipulated that, should administrator not elected according law, property managed state superinendent.
on july 13, 1874, in town of bad kissingen, eduard kullmann attempted assassinate bismarck pistol, hit hand. kullmann cited church laws reason attempt; sentenced 14 years of zuchthaus (correctional facilities harsh forced labor). assassination attempt led intensification of kulturkampf measures.

1875

5 february 1875, encyclical, quod nunquam declared may laws invalid, insofar totally oppose divine order of church . catholic newspaper westfälischer merkur first publish whole text on 18th of same month in germany. following papers publishing encyclical confiscated.
22 april 1875, prussian payment law (breadbasket law) stopped government subsidies , payments catholic bishoprics , clerics unless signed declaration of adherence laws.
31 may 1875, prussian congregations law dissolving orders within 6 months except involved in care infirm. teaching orders, time extended.
20 june 1875, prussian church finances administration law providing representation , council elected parish administration of property.
4 july 1875, prussian old-catholic church entitlement law giving old-catholic communities of size right use catholic churches , cemeteries.

1876

the last 2 laws passed in 1876 of no practical importance.

26 february 1876, possible punishment violation of pulpit law extended publications.
7 june 1876, state supervision act provided government supervision of church assets in catholic dioceses in prussia.

mitigation , peace laws

pope leo xiii (c. 1898)

the political situation in europe volatile. perceived possible enemy hostile german unification under prussian leadership, austria , germany became friends , formed dual alliance in 1879. possibility of war france or russia became more remote. therefore, social , economical problems moved fore , bismarck’s attention gradually turned other topics deemed more threatening such increasing popularity of socialists or more important such questions of import duties. in these matters either not rely on support of liberals pursue goals or not sufficient form majority. bismarck had not been comfortable increasing ferocity of kulturkampf. concerning rise of centre party, laws had proven ineffective , counter productive. realized of no battling centre party , far separation of state , church concerend, had achieved more wanted.

in order garner support anti-socialist laws , protective trade tariffs, bismarck turned on liberals in search of new alliances. death of pius ix on 7 february 1878 opened door settlement catholic church. new pope, leo xiii pragmatic , conciliatory , expressed wish peace in letter prussian king on day of election followed second letter in similar vein same year.

bismarck , pope entered direct negotiations without participation of church or reichstag, yet without success. came pass falk, vehemently resented catholics, resigned on 14 july 1879, read peace offering vatican. decisive boost came in february 1880, when vatican unexpectedly agreed civic registry of clerics. kulturkampf wound down talks lead number of so-called mitigation , peace laws passed until 1887.

july 1880, first mitigation law reallowed government payments prussian dioceses , freed bishops swearing allegiance prussian laws. hereupon, 4 new bishops reinstated seats had been left vacant after death of former bishops. catholic associations involved in care of infirm readmitted.
1882 resumption of diplomatic relations between prussia (not germany) , vatican, had been cut in 1872
31 may 1882, second mitigation law allowed waiver of government exams clerics
july 1883, third mitigation law legalized religious actions of bishops , in cases king pardon deposed bishops. 280 expelled clerics pardoned.

on 29 september 1885, sign of peace, bismarck proposed pope arbiter in dispute spain caroline islands , accepted verdict in favour of spain. in gratitude great horror of catholics, pope awarded bismarck supreme order of christ, highest order of chivalry granted holy see. bismarck protestant ever receive award.

after further negotiations between prussia , vatican prussian parliament passed 2 additional laws amending of kulturkampf laws.

21 may 1886, first peace law amended of regulations in education standards , civic registry law of 11 may 1873 , state exams clerics (waiver in second mitigation law of 31 may 1882) totally abolished. episcopal-theological academies , seminaries theological studies @ these institutions readmitted. students allowed quartered in catholic boarding houses (konvikts). state acknowledged papal disciplinary powers , abolished royal court of justice ecclesiastical affairs
26 april 1887, second peace law readmitted orders except jesuits prussia

on 23 may 1887, pope declared “the struggle damaged church , of no state over”. mitigation , peace laws restored inner autonomy of catholic church while leaving key regulations , laws concerning separation of church , state in place (civic marriage, civic registry, religious disaffiliation, government school supervision, civic registry of clerics, ban of jesuits, pulpit law, state supervision of church assets, constitutional amendments , catholic section in ministry of culture not reintroduced).

the respective opposing parties in reichstag harshly criticized concessions made vatican , prussian government. windthorst , centre party dismayed @ being sidelined , not being consulted concessions pope made, e. g. ban on jesuits or civil registry of clerics. none of party’s major demands met. instead, pope sided bismarck on non-religious issues , pressured centre party support bismarck or @ least abstain, e. g. in matter of hotly debated septennat 1887 (7-year military budget). many liberals, falk, objected concessions bismarck made church.

the growth of centre party has been considered major setback bismarck although never publicly conceded. yet, in spite of strong catholic representation in reichstag, political power , influence of church in public sphere , political power reduced.

although germany , vatican officially @ peace after 1878, religious conflicts , tensions continued. @ turn of century, pope pius x announced encyclical pascendi dominici gregis, mounting new attacks on historical criticism of biblical texts , accommodation of catholicism modern philosophy, sociology or literature. of 1910, clerics had take oath against forms of modernism, requirement later extended teachers of catholic religion @ schools , professors of catholic theology resulting in intense political , public debates , new conflicts state.

effects of laws, contemporary criticism , long term results

the abolishment of catholic section of prussian ministry of ecclesiastical , educational affairs, deprived catholics of voice @ highest level. system of strict government supervision of schools applied in catholic areas; protestant schools left alone. school politics alienated protestant conservatives , churchmen.

the british ambassador odo russell reported london in october 1872 how bismarck s plans backfiring strengthening ultramontane (pro-papal) position inside german catholicism:

the german bishops politically powerless in germany , theologically in opposition pope in rome – have become powerful political leaders in germany , enthusiastic defenders of infallible faith of rome, united, disciplined, , thirsting martyrdom, bismarck s uncalled antiliberal declaration of war on freedom had hitherto peacefully enjoyed.

nearly german bishops, clergy , laymen rejected legality of new laws, , defiant facing increasingly heavy penalties, trials , imprisonments. of 1878, 3 of 8 prussian dioceses still had bishops, 1,125 of 4,600 parishes vacant, , 1,800 priests ended in jail or in exile, half monks , nuns had left prussia, third of monasteries , convents closed. between 1872 , 1878, numerous catholic newspapers confiscated, catholic associations , assemblies dissolved, , catholic civil servants dismissed merely on pretence of having ultramontane sympathies. thousands of laypeople imprisoned assisting priests evade punitive new laws.

the general ideological enthusiasm among liberals kulturkampf in contrast bismarck s pragmatic attitude towards measures , growing disquiet conservatives. apart outspoken criticism of kulturkampf laws catholic church , centre party, there number of liberals , protestants voiced concern @ least @ so-called kampfgesetze (battle laws). unease concerning effects of programme continued spread among bigoted priest-haters , doctrinaire liberals . such noted critics outside catholic camp friedrich heinrich geffcken, emil albert friedberg or julius von kirchmann. although proponents of state superiority, regarded of laws either ineffective or interference in internal church affairs , not consistent liberal values. geffcken wrote intention emancipate laity hierarchy, main body of catholics brought in phalanx hands of leaders wrested. state cannot fight @ length against third of population, has no means break such passive resistance supported , organized religious fanaticism. if statesman desists correctness of measure matters has power enforce it. bismarck – saw variety of tactical political advantages in these measures, e. g. suppressive policies against polish population – took pains distance himself rigors of enforcement.

the kulturkampf law considered harshest , no equivalent in europe expatriation law. passed liberal majority in parliament, stipulated banishment punishment civilized peoples considered harshest beyond death penalty.

as centre party, these measures did not have effect bismarck had in mind. in state elections of november 1873, grew 50 90 seats , in reichstag elections 63 91. number of catholic periodicals increased; in 1873 there 120.

the kulturkampf gave secularists , socialists opportunity attack religions, outcome distressed protestant leaders , bismarck himself, devout pietistic protestant.

in face of systematic defiance, bismarck government increased penalties , attacks, , challenged in 1875 when papal encyclical declared entire ecclesiastical legislation of prussia invalid, , threatened excommunicate catholic obeyed. there no violence, catholics mobilized support, set numerous civic organizations, raised money pay fines , rallied behind church , center party.

to bismarck s surprise, conservative party junkers own landowning class in east prussia, sided catholics. protestants , did not pope, had in common center party. conservatives controlled local schools , did not want bureaucrats berlin take them over. hostile liberals, being fearful of free trade put them in competition united states , other grain exporters, , disliking secular views. in prussian legislature sided center party on school issue. bismarck livid, , resigned premiership of prussia (while remaining chancellor of german empire), telling ally, in domestic affairs have lost ground me acceptable through unpatriotic treason of conservative party in catholic question. indeed, many of bismarck s conservative friends in opposition. kaiser william i, king of prussia; opposed civil marriage component of kulturkampf.

the kulturkampf made catholics more resolute; responded not violence votes, , newly formed center party became major force in imperial parliament, gained support non-catholic minorities felt threatened bismarck s centralization of power. in long run, significant result mobilization of catholic voters through center party, , insistence on protecting church. historian margaret anderson says:

the effort perceived, , not opponents, aiming @ nothing less forcible assimilation of catholic church , adherents values , norms of empire s protestant majority....[it led] catholics – young , old, male , female, cleric , lay, big men , small – cleave priests , defy legislation.

after center party had doubled popular vote in elections of 1874, became second largest party in national parliament, , remained powerful force next 60 years. became difficult bismarck form government without support. decades-long experience in battling against kulturkampf, catholics of germany, says professor margaret anderson, learned democracy. states clergy:

acquired pragmatic, nonetheless real, commitment democratic elections, parliamentary procedures, , party politics – commitments in schooled flock, practice as preaching.

anti-polish aspect of kulturkampf

the poles had suffered discrimination , numerous oppressive measures in germany long before unification. these measures intensified after german empire formed , bismarck known particularly hostile towards poles. christopher clark argues prussian policy changed radically in 1870s in face of highly visible polish support france in franco-prussian war. polish demonstrations made clear polish nationalist feeling, , calls made polish recruits desert prussian army — though these went unheeded. bismarck outraged, telling prussian cabinet in 1871: russian border adriatic sea confronted combined propaganda of slavs, ultramontanes, , reactionaries, , necessary openly defend our national interests , our language against such hostile actions. therefore, in province of posen kulturkampf took on more nationalistic character in other parts of germany. not adamant supporter of liberal’s general kulturkampf goals, bismarck did recognize potential in of them subduing polish national aspirations , readily made use of it. while liberals main objective separation of state , church essential democratic , liberal society, bismarck saw use in separating polish population supporter , guardian of national identity. prussian authorities imprisoned 185 priests , forced hundred of others exile. among imprisoned primate of poland archbishop mieczysław ledóchowski. large part of remaining catholic priests had continue service in hiding authorities. although of 185 imprisoned set free end of decade, released emigrated.

the official end of kulturkampf had little influence on policies of germanization continued in polish-inhabited parts of country.