Non-Christian sources Sources for the historicity of Jesus

1 non-christian sources

1.1 key sources

1.1.1 josephus
1.1.2 tacitus


1.2 relevant sources

1.2.1 mara bar sarapion
1.2.2 suetonius
1.2.3 talmud


1.3 minor sources
1.4 disputed sources

1.4.1 james ossuary

non-christian sources
key sources
josephus


a page 1466 copy of antiquities of jews

the writings of 1st century romano-jewish historian flavius josephus include references jesus , origins of christianity. josephus antiquities of jews, written around 93–94 ce, includes 2 references jesus in books 18 , 20.

of 2 passages, james passage in book 20 used scholars support existence of jesus, testimonium flavianum in book 18 crucifixion. josephus james passage attests existence of jesus historical person , of contemporaries considered him messiah. according bart ehrman, josephus passage jesus altered christian scribe, including reference jesus messiah.

a textual argument against authenticity of james passage use of term christos there seems unusual josephus. argument based on flow of text in document that, given mention of jesus appears in antiquities before of john baptist, christian interpolator may have inserted place jesus in text before john. further argument against authenticity of james passage have read without reference jesus.

the passage deals death of james brother of jesus in jerusalem. whereas works of josephus refer @ least twenty different people name jesus, passage specifies jesus 1 called christ . louis feldman states passage, above others, indicates josephus did jesus.

modern scholarship has universally acknowledged authenticity of reference in book 20, chapter 9, 1 of antiquities brother of jesus, called christ, name james , , considers having highest level of authenticity among references of josephus christianity.

the testimonium flavianum (meaning testimony of flavius [josephus]) name given passage found in book 18, chapter 3, 3 of antiquities in josephus describes condemnation , crucifixion of jesus @ hands of roman authorities. scholars have differing opinions on total or partial authenticity of reference in passage execution of jesus pontius pilate. general scholarly view while testimonium flavianum not authentic in entirety, broadly agreed upon consisted of authentic nucleus reference execution of jesus pilate subject christian interpolation. although exact nature , extent of christian redaction remains unclear, there broad consensus original text of testimonium josephus have looked like.

the references found in antiquities have no parallel texts in other work josephus such jewish war, written twenty years earlier, scholars have provided explanations absence, such antiquities covers longer time period , during twenty-year gap between writing of jewish wars (c. 70 ce) , antiquities (after 90 ce) christians had become more important in rome , hence given attention in antiquities.

a number of variations exist between statements josephus regarding deaths of james , new testament accounts. scholars view these variations indications josephus passages not interpolations, because christian interpolator more have made them correspond christian traditions. robert eisenman provides numerous christian sources confirm josephus testament, james brother of jesus.

tacitus


the title page of 1598 edition of works of tacitus, kept in empoli, italy.

the roman historian , senator tacitus referred christ, execution pontius pilate , existence of christians in rome in final work, annals (written ca. ce 116), book 15, chapter 44. relevant passage reads: called christians populace. christus, whom name had origin, suffered extreme penalty during reign of tiberius @ hands of 1 of our procurators, pontius pilatus.

scholars consider tacitus s reference execution of jesus pontius pilate both authentic, , of historical value independent roman source christianity in unison other historical records. william l. portier has stated consistency in references tacitus, josephus , letters emperor trajan pliny younger reaffirm validity of 3 accounts.

tacitus patriotic roman senator , writings shows no sympathy towards christians. andreas köstenberger , separately robert e. van voorst state tone of passage towards christians far negative have been authored christian scribe - conclusion shared john p. meier robert e. van voorst states of roman writers, tacitus gives precise information christ .

john dominic crossan considers passage important in establishing jesus existed , crucified, , states: crucified sure historical can ever be, since both josephus , tacitus... agree christian accounts on @ least basic fact. bart d. ehrman states: tacitus s report confirms know other sources, jesus executed order of roman governor of judea, pontius pilate, sometime during tiberius s reign. eddy , boyd state firmly established tacitus provides non-christian confirmation of crucifixion of jesus.

although majority of scholars consider genuine, few scholars question authenticity of passage given tacitus born 25 years after jesus death.

some scholars have debated historical value of passage given tacitus not reveal source of information. gerd theissen , annette merz argue tacitus @ times had drawn on earlier historical works lost us, , may have used official sources roman archive in case; however, if tacitus had been copying official source, scholars expect him have labeled pilate correctly prefect rather procurator. theissen , merz state tacitus gives description of widespread prejudices christianity , few precise details christus , christianity, source of remains unclear. however, paul r. eddy has stated given position senator tacitus have had access official roman documents of time , did not need other sources.

michael martin notes authenticity of passage of annals has been disputed on grounds tacitus not have used word “messiah” in authentic roman document.

weaver notes tacitus spoke of persecution of christians, no other christian author wrote of persecution hundred years.

hotema notes passage not quoted church father 15th century, although passage have been useful them in work; , passage refers christians in rome being multitude, while @ time christian congregation in rome have been small.

richard carrier has put forward ideas christ, author of name, executed procurator pontius pilate in reign of tiberius line christian interpolation , tacitus wrote chrestians not christians.

scholars have debated issue of hearsay in reference tacitus. charles guignebert argued long there possibility [that tacitus merely echoing christians saying], passage remains quite worthless . r. t. france states tacitus passage @ best tacitus repeating had heard through christians. however, paul r. eddy has stated rome s preeminent historian, tacitus known checking sources , not in habit of reporting gossip. tacitus member of quindecimviri sacris faciundis, council of priests duty supervise foreign religious cults in rome, van voorst points out, makes reasonable suppose have acquired knowledge of christian origins through work body.

relevant sources
mara bar sarapion

mara (son of sarapion) stoic philosopher roman province of syria. sometime between 73 ce , 3rd century, mara wrote letter son (also called sarapion) may contain non-christian reference crucifixion of jesus.

the letter refers unjust treatment of 3 wise men : murder of socrates, burning of pythagoras, , execution of wise king of jews. author explains in 3 cases wrongdoing resulted in future punishment of responsible god , when wise oppressed, not wisdom triumph in end, god punishes oppressors.

the letter includes no christian themes , author presumed pagan. scholars see reference execution of wise king of jews non-christian reference jesus. criteria support non-christian origin of letter include observation king of jews not christian title, , letter s premise jesus lives on based on wisdom of teachings in contrast christian concept jesus continues live through resurrection.

scholars such robert van voorst see little doubt reference execution of king of jews death of jesus. others such craig a. evans see less value in letter, given uncertain date, , possible ambiguity in reference.

suetonius


a 1540 copy of lives of twelve caesars suetonius

the roman historian suetonius (c. 69 – after 122 ce) made references christians , leader in work lives of twelve caesars (written 121 ce). references appear in claudius 25 , nero 16 describe lives of roman emperors claudius , nero. nero 16 passage refers abuses nero , mentions how inflicted punishment on christians - dated around ce 64. passage shows clear contempt of suetonius christians - same contempt expressed tacitus , pliny younger in writings, not refer jesus himself.

the earlier passage in claudius, may include reference jesus, subject debate among scholars. in claudius 25 suetonius refers expulsion of jews claudius , states:

since jews made disturbances @ instigation of chrestus, expelled them rome.

the reference in claudius 25 involves agitations in jewish community led expulsion of jews rome claudius, , same event mentioned in acts of apostles (18:2). historians date expulsion around ce 49-50. suetonius refers leader of christians chrestus, term used used tacitus, referred in latin dictionaries (amongst other things) version of christus . however, wording used suetonius implies chrestus alive @ time of disturbance , agitating jews in rome. weakens historical value of reference whole, , there no overall scholarly agreement value reference jesus. however, confusion of suetonius points lack of christian interpolation, christian scribe not have confused jews christians.

most scholars assume in reference jesus meant , disturbances mentioned due spread of christianity in rome. however, scholars divided on value of suetonius reference. scholars such craig a. evans, john meier , craig s. keener see reference jesus. others such stephen benko , h. dixon slingerland see having little or no historical value.

menahem stern states suetonius referring jesus; because have added chrestus if had meant unknown agitator.

the talmud


a page sanhedrin in 12th century reuchlin codex talmud

the babylonian talmud in few cases includes possible references jesus using terms yeshu , yeshu ha-notzri , ben stada , , ben pandera . of these references date tannaitic period (70–200 ce). in cases, not clear if references jesus, or other people, , scholars continue debate historical value, , references, if any, may jesus.

robert van voorst states scarcity of jewish references jesus not surprising, given jesus not prominent issue jews during first century, , after devastation caused siege of jerusalem in year 70, jewish scholars focusing on preserving judaism itself, rather paying attention christianity.

robert eisenman argues derivation of jesus of nazareth ha-notzri impossible on etymological grounds, suggest rather nazirite rather nazarene .

van voorst states although question of referred in various points in talmud remains subject debate among scholars, in case of sanhedrin 43a (generally considered important reference jesus in rabbinic literature), jesus can confirmed subject of passage, not reference itself, context surrounds it, , there little doubt refers death of jesus of nazareth. christopher m. tuckett states if accepted death narrative of sanhedrin 43a refers jesus of nazareth provides evidence of jesus existence , execution.

andreas kostenberger states passage tannaitic reference trial , death of jesus @ passover , earlier other references jesus in talmud. passage reflects hostility toward jesus among rabbis , includes text:

it taught: on eve of passover hung yeshu , crier went forth forty days beforehand declaring [yeshu] going stoned practicing witchcraft, enticing , leading israel astray. knows clear him should come forth , exonerate him. no 1 had exonerating him , hung him on eve of passover.

peter schäfer states there can no doubt narrative of execution of jesus in talmud refers jesus of nazareth, states rabbinic literature in question not tannaitic later amoraic period , may have drawn on christian gospels, , may have been written responses them. bart ehrman , separately mark allan powell state given talmud references quite late, can give no historically reliable information teachings or actions of jesus during life.

another reference in second century rabbinic literature (tosefta hullin ii 22) refers rabbi eleazar ben dama bitten snake, denied healing in name of jesus rabbi against law, , died. passage reflects attitude of jesus jewish opponents, i.e. miracles based on evil powers.

eddy , boyd, question value of several of talmudic references state significance of talmud historical jesus research never denies existence of jesus, accuses him of sorcery, indirectly confirming existence. r. t. france , separately edgar v. mcknight state divergence of talmud statements christian accounts , negative nature indicate person existed. craig blomberg states denial of existence of jesus never part of jewish tradition, instead accused him of being sorcerer , magician, reflected in other sources such celsus. andreas kostenberger states overall conclusion can drawn references in talmud jesus historical person existence never denied jewish tradition, instead focused on discrediting him.

minor sources

pliny younger (c. 61 - c. 112), provincial governor of pontus , bithynia, wrote emperor trajan c. 112 concerning how deal christians, refused worship emperor, , instead worshiped christus . charles guignebert, not doubt jesus of gospels lived in gallilee in 1st century, nevertheless dismisses letter acceptable evidence historical jesus.

thallus, of whom little known, , none of writings survive, wrote history allegedly around middle late first century ce, eusebius referred. julius africanus, writing c 221, links reference in third book of history period of darkness described in crucifixion accounts in 3 of gospels . not known whether thallus made mention crucifixion accounts; if did, earliest noncanonical reference gospel episode, usefulness in determining historicity of jesus uncertain. dating of thallus dependent on him writing event during 207th olympiad (49-52 ad), means wrote after date, not near date. depends on text being corrupt, mean thallus have been writing after 217th olympiad (89-92 ad), or 167th olympiad (112-109 bc). first referenced theophilus, writing around 180 ad, means thallus have written time between 109 bc , 180 ad. know thallus mentioned solar eclipse, , solar eclipses not possible @ passover, mean thallus not talking crucifixion of jesus @ all.

phlegon of tralles, a.d. 80 - 140, similar thallus, julius africanus mentions historian named phlegon wrote chronicle of history around a.d. 140, records: “phlegon records that, in time of tiberius caesar, @ full moon, there full eclipse of sun sixth ninth hour.” (africanus, chronography, 18:1) phlegon mentioned origen (an church theologian , scholar, born in alexandria): “now phlegon, in thirteenth or fourteenth book, think, of chronicles, not ascribed jesus knowledge of future events . . . testified result corresponded predictions.” (origen against celsus, book 2, chapter 14) “and regard eclipse in time of tiberius caesar, in reign jesus appears have been crucified, , great earthquakes took place … ” (origen against celsus, book 2, chapter 33) “jesus, while alive, of no assistance himself, arose after death, , exhibited marks of punishment, , showed how hands had been pierced nails.” (origen against celsus, book 2, chapter 59). however, eusebius in chronicon (written in 4th century ad) records phlegon said verbatim. now, in fourth year of 202nd olympiad [32 ad], great eclipse of sun occurred @ sixth hour [noon] excelled every other before it, turning day such darkness of night stars seen in heaven, , earth moved in bithynia, toppling many buildings in city of nicaea. phlegon never mentions jesus or 3 hour darkness. mentions solar eclipse, can not occur @ passover. apart year (which may corruption), description fits earthquake , eclipse occurred in north west turkey on november, 29 ad.

celsus writing late in second century produced first full-scale attack on christianity. celsus document has not survived in third century origen replied it, , known of celsus writing through responses of origen. according origen, celsus accused jesus of being magician , sorcerer. while statements of celsus may seen valuable, have little historical value, given wording of original writings can not examined.

the dead sea scrolls first century or older writings show language , customs of jews of jesus time. scholars such henry chadwick see similar uses of languages , viewpoints recorded in new testament , dead sea scrolls valuable in showing new testament portrays first century period reports , not product of later period. however, relationship between dead sea scrolls , historicity of jesus has been subject of highly controversial theories, , although new theories continue appear, there no overall scholarly agreement impact on historicity of jesus, despite usefulness of scrolls in shedding light on first-century jewish traditions.

disputed sources

the following sources disputed, , of limited historical value, @ least proof of christians existing , being known , talked in first , second centuries.

lucian of samosata (born 115 ce), well-known greek satirist , traveling lecturer wrote mockingly of followers of jesus ignorance , credulity. given lucian s understanding of christian traditions has significant gaps , errors, writing unlikely have been influenced christians themselves, , may provide independent statement crucifixion of jesus. however, given nature of text satire, lucian may have embellished stories heard , account cannot have high degree of historical reliability.
emperor trajan (c. 53 - 117), emperor trajan in reply letter sent pliny younger observed proper procedure, dear pliny, in sifting cases of had been denounced christians. not possible lay down general rule serve kind of fixed standard. not sought out; if denounced , proved guilty, punished, reservation, whoever denies christian , proves it--that is, worshiping our gods--even though under suspicion in past, shall obtain pardon through repentance. anonymously posted accusations ought have no place in prosecution. both dangerous kind of precedent , out of keeping spirit of our age.
epictetus (a.d. 55 - 135) possible yet disputed reference christians galileans in discourses 4.7.6 , 2.9.19-21 therefore, if madness can produce attitude[of detachment] toward these things [death, loss of family, property], , habit, galileans, can no 1 learn reason , demonstration god has made things in universe, , whole universe itself, unhindered , complete in itself, , parts of serve needs of whole. (4.7.6)
numenius of apamea, second century, possible allusion christians , christ may contained in fragments of treatises on points of divergence between academicians , plato, on (in according origen, contra celsum, iv. 51, makes allusion jesus christ)
claudius galenus (galen) (a.d. 129 - 200) galen may reference christ , followers; galen, de differentiis pulsuum (on pulse), iii, 3. work listed in de libris propriis 5, , seems belong between 176-192 ad, or possibly 176-180 1 might more teach novelties followers of moses , christ physicians , philosophers cling fast schools

james ossuary

there limestone burial box 1st century known james ossuary aramaic inscription, james, son of joseph, brother of jesus. authenticity of inscription challenged israel antiquities authority, filed complaint israeli police. in 2012, owner of ossuary found not guilty, judge ruling authenticity of ossuary inscription had not been proven either way. has been suggested forgery.